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1 principal occupation
English-russian dctionary of contemporary Economics > principal occupation
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2 principal occupation
Деловая лексика: основное занятие -
3 (the) principal occupation of the population is farming
the principal/leading occupation of the population is farming население в основном занимается сельским хозяйствомEnglish-Russian combinatory dictionary > (the) principal occupation of the population is farming
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4 occupation
[ˌɔkjʊ'peɪʃ(ə)n]n1) занятиеShe is bored for lack of occupation. — Она скучает от безделья.
He needs some occupation for his spare time. — Ему надо чем-нибудь занять свое свободное время.
- pleasant occupation- one's favourite occupation
- useful occupation
- home occupation
- people without definite occupation
- learn some occupation
- look for some occupation
- find one's occupation in agriculture2) профессия, работаWhat's his occupation? — Чем он занимается? /Кто он по профессии?
It's a men's occupation. — Это мужская профессия.
It is not an occupation for women. — Это не женское дело. /Это не женская профессия.
His present occupation doesn't leave him any time for travels. — Его теперешняя работа не оставляет времени на путешествия.
- dangerous occupation- sedentary occupation
- poorly paid occupation
- profitable occupation
- female occupation
- engineer by occupation
- have no fixed occupation
- follow the same occupation
- have no other occupation
- find a suitable occupation
- follow the occupation of their fathers
- loose one's occupation
- change one's occupation
- principal occupation of the population is farming3) вселение, заселение, владениеWhen will the house be ready for occupation? — Когда в этот дом можно будет въехать/вселиться?
The house is ready for immediate occupation. — Дом готов к заселению.
- continued occupation of these buildings- attempted occupation of the airport4) оккупация- military occupation- occupation army
- occupation regime
- occupation of the country
- occupation of a country by the enemy
- years of occupation
- city under occupation
- territory under occupation•USAGE: -
5 occupation
n1) занятие; вид деятельности2) профессия3) владение, пользование
- basic occupation
- blue-collar occupation
- chief occupation
- commercial occupations
- constructional occupations
- economic occupation
- extractive occupations
- full-time occupation
- gainful occupation
- licensed occupation
- main occupation
- major occupation
- manufacturing occupations
- previous occupation
- primary occupation
- principal occupation
- secondary occupation
- sedentary occupation
- service occupations
- subsidiary occupation
- white-collar occupationEnglish-russian dctionary of contemporary Economics > occupation
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6 ROP
1) Общая лексика: ретинопатия недоношенных2) Военный термин: Remote Operating Position, record of performance, record of production, record of purchase, reorder point3) Техника: remote operating panel4) Сельское хозяйство: reduction-oxidation potential5) Религия: Religion Of Peace6) Бухгалтерия: Reciprocity Of Price7) Сокращение: run of press, run-of-paper8) Университет: Regional Occupation Programs, Regional Occupational Placement9) Физиология: Retinopathy Of Prematurity, Right Occiput Posterior10) Вычислительная техника: Remote Operations Service (IBM, OS/2)11) Нефть: вертикальная скорость проходки, механическая скорость бурения, механическая скорость проходки (rate of penetration), Penetration Rate Log12) Полицейский термин: Королевская полиция Омана (Royal Omani Police)13) Реклама: размещение по усмотрению издателя14) Деловая лексика: Registered Options Principal15) Глоссарий компании Сахалин Энерджи: техническая скорость проходки (rate of penetration), скорость проходки (rate of penetration)16) Образование: Regional Occupational Program17) Сахалин Р: rate of penetration18) Макаров: run-of-press color printing19) Расширение файла: RISC Operation, Raster Operation20) Нефть и газ: drilling rate, penetration rate21) Должность: Regional Occupation Program22) NYSE. Roper Industries, Inc.23) Аэропорты: Rota, Mariana Islands -
7 RoP
1) Общая лексика: ретинопатия недоношенных2) Военный термин: Remote Operating Position, record of performance, record of production, record of purchase, reorder point3) Техника: remote operating panel4) Сельское хозяйство: reduction-oxidation potential5) Религия: Religion Of Peace6) Бухгалтерия: Reciprocity Of Price7) Сокращение: run of press, run-of-paper8) Университет: Regional Occupation Programs, Regional Occupational Placement9) Физиология: Retinopathy Of Prematurity, Right Occiput Posterior10) Вычислительная техника: Remote Operations Service (IBM, OS/2)11) Нефть: вертикальная скорость проходки, механическая скорость бурения, механическая скорость проходки (rate of penetration), Penetration Rate Log12) Полицейский термин: Королевская полиция Омана (Royal Omani Police)13) Реклама: размещение по усмотрению издателя14) Деловая лексика: Registered Options Principal15) Глоссарий компании Сахалин Энерджи: техническая скорость проходки (rate of penetration), скорость проходки (rate of penetration)16) Образование: Regional Occupational Program17) Сахалин Р: rate of penetration18) Макаров: run-of-press color printing19) Расширение файла: RISC Operation, Raster Operation20) Нефть и газ: drilling rate, penetration rate21) Должность: Regional Occupation Program22) NYSE. Roper Industries, Inc.23) Аэропорты: Rota, Mariana Islands -
8 title
1) (the name of a book, play, painting, piece of music etc: The title of the painting is `A Winter Evening'.) título2) (a word put before a person's name to show rank, honour, occupation etc: Sir John; Lord Henry; Captain Smith; Professor Brown; Dr (Doctor) Peter Jones.) título•- titled- title deed
- title page
- title rôle
title n títulowhat's the title of the book? ¿cuál es el título del libro?tr['taɪtəl]1 (gen) título2 SMALLLAW/SMALL título, derecho3 SMALLSPORT/SMALL título, campeonato1 titular1 (film credits) créditos nombre masculino plural\SMALLIDIOMATIC EXPRESSION/SMALLtitle deed escritura de propiedadtitle page portadatitle role papel nombre masculino principaltitle n: título mn.• antenombre s.m.• campeonato s.m.• diploma s.m.• encabezamiento s.m.• epígrafe s.m.• nombre s.m.• rótulo s.m.• rúbrica s.f.• tratamiento s.m.• trato s.m.• título s.m.v.• intitular v.• titular v.
I 'taɪtḷ1) c ( of creative work) título m; (before n)title role — papel m protagónico ( de la obra del mismo nombre)
2) ca) (designation, label) título mb) ( status) tratamiento m (como Sr, Sra, Dr etc)c) ( noble rank) título m (nobiliario or de nobleza)d) ( Sport) título m; (before n)title fight — combate m por el título
3) ( Law)a) u ( right of ownership)title (TO something) — derecho m (a algo)
b) c ( document) título m de propiedad4) titles pl (Cin, TV) créditos mpl, títulos mpl (de crédito)
II
transitive verb \<\<book/painting/song\>\> titular, intitular (frml)['taɪtl]1. N1) [of book, chapter] título m ; (=headline) titular m, cabecera fwhat title are you giving the book? — ¿qué título vas a dar al libro?, ¿cómo vas a titular el libro?
2) (=form of address) fórmula f de tratamiento, tratamiento m ; [of nobility etc] título mwhat title should I give him? — ¿qué tratamiento debo darle?
noble title, title of nobility — título m de nobleza
George V gave him a title — Jorge V le dio un título de nobleza or le ennobleció
what's your job title? — ¿cómo se llama or qué nombre recibe tu puesto?
3) (Sport) título mto hold a title — ser campeón(-ona) m / f, tener un título
4) (Publishing) (=book, periodical) título m, publicación f5) (Jur) (=right) derecho m6) titles (Cine, TV) créditos mplthe opening/closing titles — créditos mpl iniciales/finales
2.VT titular, intitular frm3.CPDtitle deed N — (Jur) título m de propiedad
title fight N — combate m por el título
title holder N — (Sport) campeón(-ona) m / f
title page N — portada f
title role N — (Theat, Cine) papel m principal
title track N — (Mus) corte m que da nombre al álbum
* * *
I ['taɪtḷ]1) c ( of creative work) título m; (before n)title role — papel m protagónico ( de la obra del mismo nombre)
2) ca) (designation, label) título mb) ( status) tratamiento m (como Sr, Sra, Dr etc)c) ( noble rank) título m (nobiliario or de nobleza)d) ( Sport) título m; (before n)title fight — combate m por el título
3) ( Law)a) u ( right of ownership)title (TO something) — derecho m (a algo)
b) c ( document) título m de propiedad4) titles pl (Cin, TV) créditos mpl, títulos mpl (de crédito)
II
transitive verb \<\<book/painting/song\>\> titular, intitular (frml) -
9 road
- road
- n1. дорога, путь
2. штрек
- access road
- all-purpose road
- approach road
- arterial road
- asphalt road
- backbone road
- bottle-neck road
- bypass road
- classified road
- county road
- cross roads
- crossover road
- densely-trafficked road
- deplaning road
- depressed road
- detour road
- dirt road
- distribute road
- district road
- divided road
- dual carriageway road
- earth road
- elevated road
- emplaning road
- estate road
- haul road
- ice road
- interior road
- land service road
- limited access road
- logging road
- lumber road
- main road
- major road
- minor road
- motor road
- mountain road
- occupation road
- paved road
- pioneer road
- principal road
- private road
- radial road
- relief road
- residential road
- ring road
- scenic road
- secondary road
- service road
- single-purpose road
- slip road
- specific road
- subsidiary road
- toll road
- township road
- trunk road
- unpaved road
- winter snow road
Англо-русский строительный словарь. — М.: Русский Язык. С.Н.Корчемкина, С.К.Кашкина, С.В.Курбатова. 1995.
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10 number
1) числоб) количествов) состав; совокупность2) номер (1. порядковый номер 2. обозначенный номером объект 3. номер телефона 4. номер (концертной) программы) || нумеровать; присваивать номер3) знак (порядкового) номера, символ \# ( в англоязычной литературе)4) индекс (напр. моды)5) считать; пересчитывать6) pl арифметика•- number of cylinders
- number of epochs
- number of heads
- number of hidden layers
- number of logical cylinders
- number of logical heads
- number of logical sectors
- number of primary turns
- number of quantizing levels
- number of secondary turns
- number of sectors per track
- number of sessions
- number of states
- number of tracks
- number of turns
- Abbe number
- absolute frame number
- abstract number
- account number
- additional quantum number
- algebraic number
- angular mode number
- assigned number
- Avogadro number
- axial mode number
- azimuthal quantum number
- base number
- Betti number
- binary number
- binary-coded decimal number
- block number
- Brinell hardness number
- bus number
- call number
- called directory number
- called terminal number
- calling directory number
- calling terminal number
- cardinal number - Cayley numbers
- channel number - cliquomatic number
- cluster number
- coded decimal number
- complex number
- composite number
- concrete number
- condition number
- controller number
- Conway number
- coprime numbers
- counting number
- customer number
- cutoff wave number
- cylinder number
- device number
- directory number
- double-length number
- double-precision number
- drive number
- effective number of bits - even number
- expected number of augmented doubles
- extension number
- f-number
- Fibonacci numbers
- fixed-point number
- floating-point number
- font number
- fractional number - Fresnel number
- function number - Grashof number
- groove number
- Gummel number
- Hartman number
- head number
- hexadecimal number - ID number
- identification number
- imaginary number
- infinite repeating decimal number
- inner quantum number
- interconnection level number
- international number
- Internet number
- internet number
- irrational number
- job number
- Julian number
- line number
- logical block number
- logical cylinder number
- logical device number
- logical head number
- logical sector number - Lorentz number
- fuzzy number
- L-R fuzzy number
- Lundquist number
- magic number
- magnetic quantum number
- magnetic Reynolds number
- main quantum number
- mass number
- maximum usable read number
- Mersenne prime numbers
- mixed number - multiple number
- natural number
- network number - normalized wave number
- Nusselt number
- occupation number
- odd number
- orbital quantum number
- ordinal number
- page number
- perfect number
- personal communication number - physical cylinder number
- physical head number
- physical sector number
- portable serial number - preprogrammed number
- prime number
- principal quantum number
- priority number
- propagation number
- pseudodecimal number
- pseudorandom number
- quantum number
- radial mode number
- radix number
- random number
- rational number
- read number
- read-around number
- real number - repeating decimal number
- resolvable element number
- revolution number
- Reynolds number
- round-off number
- scanning-lines number
- Schmidt number
- security service number
- seed number
- serial number
- Sherwood number
- signed number
- spin quantum number
- SS number
- statement number
- subnet number
- subscriber number
- surreal number
- T-number
- telephone number
- ticket number
- tolerant fuzzy number
- toll-free number
- total quantum number
- track number
- transcendental number
- transfinite number
- translational quantum number
- transverse wave number
- trapezoidal fuzzy number
- triangular fuzzy number
- unimodal fuzzy number
- unlisted phone number
- unsigned number
- version number
- vias number
- vibrational quantum number
- Vickers number
- volume reference number
- volume serial number
- wave number
- whole number
- winding number
- Wolf number -
11 number
1) числоб) количествов) состав; совокупность2) номер (1. порядковый номер 2. обозначенный номером объект 3. номер телефона 4. номер (концертной) программы) || нумеровать; присваивать номер3) знак (порядкового) номера, символ \# ( в англоязычной литературе)4) индекс (напр. моды)5) считать; пересчитывать6) pl. арифметика•- Abbe number
- absolute frame number
- abstract number
- account number
- additional quantum number
- algebraic number
- angular mode number
- assigned number
- Avogadro number
- axial mode number
- azimuthal quantum number
- base number
- Betti number
- binary number
- binary-coded decimal number
- block number
- Brinell hardness number
- bus number
- call number
- called directory number
- called terminal number
- calling directory number
- calling terminal number
- card select number
- cardinal number
- Catalan's numbers
- Cayley numbers
- channel number
- ciphering key sequence number
- clique number
- cliquomatic number
- cluster number
- coded decimal number
- complex number
- composite number
- concrete number
- condition number
- controller number
- Conway number
- coprime numbers
- counting number
- customer number
- cutoff wave number
- cylinder number
- device number
- directory number
- double-length number
- double-precision number
- drive number
- effective number of bits
- electronic ID number
- enterprise number
- even number
- expected number of augmented doubles
- extension number
- f number
- Fibonacci numbers
- fixed-point number
- floating-point number
- font number
- fractional number
- frame number
- frequency-band number
- Fresnel number
- function number
- fuzzy number
- Ginsburg number
- Grashof number
- groove number
- Gummel number
- Hartman number
- head number
- hexadecimal number
- hopping sequence number
- host number
- ID number
- identification number
- imaginary number
- infinite repeating decimal number
- inner quantum number
- interconnection level number
- international number
- Internet number
- internet number
- irrational number
- job number
- Julian number
- line number
- logical block number
- logical cylinder number
- logical device number
- logical head number
- logical sector number
- logical unit number
- longitudinal propagation number
- Lorentz number
- Lundquist number - magnetic Reynolds number
- main quantum number
- mass number
- maximum usable read number
- Mersenne prime numbers
- mixed number
- mobile station international ISDN number
- mode number
- multiple number
- natural number
- network number
- non-registered parameter number
- normal fuzzy number
- normalized wave number
- number of augmented doubles
- number of cylinders
- number of epochs
- number of heads
- number of hidden layers
- number of logical cylinders
- number of logical heads
- number of logical sectors
- number of primary turns
- number of quantizing levels
- number of secondary turns
- number of sectors per track
- number of sessions
- number of states
- number of tracks
- number of turns
- Nusselt number
- occupation number
- odd number
- orbital quantum number
- ordinal number
- page number
- perfect number
- personal communication number
- personal identification number
- physical block number
- physical cylinder number
- physical head number
- physical sector number
- portable serial number
- portable user number
- Prandtl number
- preprogrammed number
- prime number
- principal quantum number
- priority number
- propagation number
- pseudodecimal number
- pseudorandom number
- quantum number
- radial mode number
- radix number
- random number
- rational number
- read number
- read-around number
- real number
- registered parameter number
- release number
- repeating decimal number
- resolvable element number
- revolution number
- Reynolds number
- round-off number
- scanning-lines number
- Schmidt number
- security service number
- seed number
- serial number
- Sherwood number
- signed number
- spin quantum number
- SS number
- statement number
- subnet number
- subscriber number
- surreal number
- T number
- telephone number
- ticket number
- tolerant fuzzy number
- toll-free number
- total quantum number
- track number
- transcendental number
- transfinite number
- translational quantum number
- transverse wave number
- trapezoidal fuzzy number
- triangular fuzzy number
- unimodal fuzzy number
- unlisted phone number
- unsigned number
- version number
- vias number
- vibrational quantum number
- Vickers number
- volume reference number
- volume serial number
- wave number
- whole number
- winding number
- Wolf numberThe New English-Russian Dictionary of Radio-electronics > number
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12 road
дорога; путь; улица- abandoned road - access road - all-weather road - approach road - arterial road - asphaltic concrete road - backbone road - ballast road - belt road - bituminous road - bituminous penetration road - bituminous surface-treated road - black-top road - blind road - blind curved road - block-stone road - bottle-neck road - brick road - bridge road - broken-stone road - brushwood road - bumpy road - bypass road - cable road - camber road - cambered road - cart road - cement-bound road - cement-concrete road - clinker road - cold bituminous road - coloured concrete road - concrete road - congested road - construction access road - construction of roads - country road - cross-over road - crowned road - dangerous-bend road - depressed road - detour road - development road - dirt road - divided road - earth road - estate road - fair-weather road - feeder road - fine-crushed rock road - forked road - four-lane road - gravel road - greasy road - gypsum road - heavily travelled road - heavy road - heavy gumbo-soil road - hillside road - ice road - ice-covered road - improved road - levee road - limited-access road - low-cost road - low-type surfaced road - lumber plank road - macadam road - mixed bituminous road - mountain road - multi-lane road - narrow road - natural road - network of road - new road - oiled earth road - overhead road - parting road - poor road - primary road - primitive road - public road - radial road - ramp road - restricted speed road - retread road - ring road - rock road - rural road - sand-clay road - secondary road - service road - silicated road - single-lane road - snow road - soil-cement road - stabilized earth road - steep-ascent road - steep-descend road - stone road - summer road - sunk road - surface treated waterbound road - tangled road - through road - toll road - tote road - tractor road - traffic road - traffic-bound road - trail road - tram road - trunk road - turnpike road - two-coat road - two-lane road - undivided road - uneven road - unsurfaced road - untreated road - wagon road - washboard road - water-bound broken stone road - winding road - winter road - wood road* * *1. дорога, путь2. штрек- access road
- all-purpose road
- approach road
- arterial road
- asphalt road
- backbone road
- bottle-neck road
- bypass road
- classified road
- county road
- cross roads
- crossover road
- densely-trafficked road
- deplaning road
- depressed road
- detour road
- dirt road
- distribute road
- district road
- divided road
- dual carriageway road
- earth road
- elevated road
- emplaning road
- estate road
- haul road
- ice road
- interior road
- land service road
- limited access road
- logging road
- lumber road
- main road
- major road
- minor road
- motor road
- mountain road
- occupation road
- paved road
- pioneer road
- principal road
- private road
- radial road
- relief road
- residential road
- ring road
- scenic road
- secondary road
- service road
- single-purpose road
- slip road
- specific road
- subsidiary road
- toll road
- township road
- trunk road
- unpaved road
- winter snow road -
13 road
1. дорога, путь2. штрекarterial road — магистральная дорога, автомагистраль
backbone road — магистральная дорога, автомагистраль
bypass road — объездная дорога, объезд
county road — дорога, находящаяся в административном подчинении графства
depressed road — дорога, проходящая под путепроводом
detour road — объездная дорога, объезд
distribute road — магистральная дорога, автомагистраль
district road — дорога, находящаяся в административном подчинении округа, дорога районного значения
haul road — путь подвоза, подъездная дорога
paved road — мостовая; дорога с твёрдым покрытием
radial road — городская автомагистраль, соединяющая центр города с периферийными районами
ring road — кольцевая городская дорога; кольцевая магистральная улица
3. дорога низшей категории4. местная дорогаservice road — временная дорога; подъездная дорога; боковой проезд
single-purpose road — дорога, предназначенная для определённого класса движения
trunk road — магистральная дорога, автомагистраль
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14 Biro, Laszlo Joszef (Ladislao José)
SUBJECT AREA: Paper and printing[br]b. 29 September 1899 Budapest, Hungaryd. 24 October 1985 Buenos Aires, Argentina[br]Hungarian inventor of the ballpoint pen.[br]Details of Biro's early life are obscure, but by 1939 he had been active as a painter, a member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences and an inventor, patenting over thirty minor inventions. During the 1930s he edited a cultural magazine and noticed in the printing shop the advantages of quick-drying ink. He began experimenting with crude ballpoint pens. The idea was not new, for an American, John Loud, had patented a cumbersome form of pen for marking rough surfaces in 1888; it had failed commercially. Biro and his brother Georg patented a ballpoint pen in 1938, although they had not yet perfected a suitable ink or a reservoir to hold it.In 1940 Biro fled the Nazi occupation of Hungary and settled in Argentina. Two years later, he had developed his pen to the point where he could seek backers for a company to exploit it commercially. His principal backer appears to have been an English accountant, Henry George Martin. In 1944 Martin offered the invention to the US Army Air Force and the British Royal Air Force to overcome the problems aircrews were experiencing at high altitudes with leaking fountain pens. Some 10,000 ballpoints were made for the RAF. Licences were granted in the USA for the manufacture of the "biro", and in 1944 the Miles-Martin Pen Company was formed in Britain and began making them on a large scale at a factory near Reading, Berkshire; by 1951 its workforce had grown to over 1,000. Other companies followed suit; by varying details of the pen, they avoided infringing the original patents. One such entrepreneur, Miles Reynolds, was the first to put the pen on sale to the public in New York; it is reputed that 10,000 were sold on the first day.Biro had little taste for commercial exploitation, and by 1947 he had withdrawn from the Argentine company, mainly to resume his painting, in the surrealist style. Examples of his work are exhibited in the Fine Arts Museum in Budapest. He created an instrument that had a greater impact on written communication than any other single invention.[br]Further Reading"Nachruf: Ladislao José Biro (1899–1985)", HistorischeBurowelt (1988) 21:5–8 (with English summary).J.Jewkes, The Sources of Invention, pp. 234–5.LRDBiographical history of technology > Biro, Laszlo Joszef (Ladislao José)
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15 Donkin, Bryan I
[br]b. 22 March 1768 Sandoe, Northumberland, Englandd. 27 February 1855 London, England[br]English mechanical engineer and inventor.[br]It was intended that Bryan Donkin should follow his father's profession of surveyor and land agent, so he spent a year or so in that occupation before he was apprenticed to John Hall, millwright of Dartford, Kent. Donkin remained with the firm after completing his apprenticeship, and when the Fourdrinier brothers in 1802 introduced from France an invention for making paper in continuous lengths they turned to John Hall for help in developing the machine: Donkin was chosen to undertake the work. In 1803 the Fourdriniers established their own works in Bermondsey, with Bryan Donkin in charge. By 1808 Donkin had acquired the works, but he continued to manufacture paper-making machines, paying a royalty to the patentees. He also undertook other engineering work including water-wheels for driving paper and other mills. He was also involved in the development of printing machinery and the preservation of food in airtight containers. Some of these improvements were patented, and he also obtained patents relating to gearing, steel pens, paper-making and railway wheels. Other inventions of Bryan Donkin that were not patented concerned revolution counters and improvements in accurate screw threads for use in graduating mathematical scales. Donkin was elected a member of the Society of Arts in 1803 and was later Chairman of the Society's Committee of Mechanics and a Vice-President of the society. He was also a member of the Royal Astronomical Society. In 1818 a group of eight young men founded the Institution of Civil Engineers; two of them were apprentices of Bryan Donkin and he encouraged their enterprise. After a change in the rules permitted the election of members over the age of 35, he himself became a member in 1821. He served on the Council and became a Vice- President, but he resigned from the Institution in 1848.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsFRS 1838. Vice-President, Institution of Civil Engineers 1826–32, 1835–45. Member, Smeatonian Society of Civil Engineers 1835; President 1843. Society of Arts Gold Medal 1810, 1819.Further ReadingS.B.Donkin, 1949–51, "Bryan Donkin, FRS, MICE 1768–1855", Transactions of the Newcomen Society 27:85–95.RTS -
16 Lister, Samuel Cunliffe, 1st Baron Masham
SUBJECT AREA: Textiles[br]b. 1 January 1815 Calverly Hall, Bradford, Englandd. 2 February 1906 Swinton Park, near Bradford, England[br]English inventor of successful wool-combing and waste-silk spinning machines.[br]Lister was descended from one of the old Yorkshire families, the Cunliffe Listers of Manningham, and was the fourth son of his father Ellis. After attending a school on Clapham Common, Lister would not go to university; his family hoped he would enter the Church, but instead he started work with the Liverpool merchants Sands, Turner \& Co., who frequently sent him to America. In 1837 his father built for him and his brother a worsted mill at Manningham, where Samuel invented a swivel shuttle and a machine for making fringes on shawls. It was here that he first became aware of the unhealthy occupation of combing wool by hand. Four years later, after seeing the machine that G.E. Donisthorpe was trying to work out, he turned his attention to mechanizing wool-combing. Lister took Donisthorpe into partnership after paying him £12,000 for his patent, and developed the Lister-Cartwright "square nip" comber. Until this time, combing machines were little different from Cartwright's original, but Lister was able to improve on this with continuous operation and by 1843 was combing the first fine botany wool that had ever been combed by machinery. In the following year he received an order for fifty machines to comb all qualities of wool. Further combing patents were taken out with Donisthorpe in 1849, 1850, 1851 and 1852, the last two being in Lister's name only. One of the important features of these patents was the provision of a gripping device or "nip" which held the wool fibres at one end while the rest of the tuft was being combed. Lister was soon running nine combing mills. In the 1850s Lister had become involved in disputes with others who held combing patents, such as his associate Isaac Holden and the Frenchman Josué Heilmann. Lister bought up the Heilmann machine patents and afterwards other types until he obtained a complete monopoly of combing machines before the patents expired. His invention stimulated demand for wool by cheapening the product and gave a vital boost to the Australian wool trade. By 1856 he was at the head of a wool-combing business such as had never been seen before, with mills at Manningham, Bradford, Halifax, Keighley and other places in the West Riding, as well as abroad.His inventive genius also extended to other fields. In 1848 he patented automatic compressed air brakes for railways, and in 1853 alone he took out twelve patents for various textile machines. He then tried to spin waste silk and made a second commercial career, turning what was called "chassum" and hitherto regarded as refuse into beautiful velvets, silks, plush and other fine materials. Waste silk consisted of cocoon remnants from the reeling process, damaged cocoons and fibres rejected from other processes. There was also wild silk obtained from uncultivated worms. This is what Lister saw in a London warehouse as a mass of knotty, dirty, impure stuff, full of bits of stick and dead mulberry leaves, which he bought for a halfpenny a pound. He spent ten years trying to solve the problems, but after a loss of £250,000 and desertion by his partner his machine caught on in 1865 and brought Lister another fortune. Having failed to comb this waste silk, Lister turned his attention to the idea of "dressing" it and separating the qualities automatically. He patented a machine in 1877 that gave a graduated combing. To weave his new silk, he imported from Spain to Bradford, together with its inventor Jose Reixach, a velvet loom that was still giving trouble. It wove two fabrics face to face, but the problem lay in separating the layers so that the pile remained regular in length. Eventually Lister was inspired by watching a scissors grinder in the street to use small emery wheels to sharpen the cutters that divided the layers of fabric. Lister took out several patents for this loom in his own name in 1868 and 1869, while in 1871 he took out one jointly with Reixach. It is said that he spent £29,000 over an eleven-year period on this loom, but this was more than recouped from the sale of reasonably priced high-quality velvets and plushes once success was achieved. Manningham mills were greatly enlarged to accommodate this new manufacture.In later years Lister had an annual profit from his mills of £250,000, much of which was presented to Bradford city in gifts such as Lister Park, the original home of the Listers. He was connected with the Bradford Chamber of Commerce for many years and held the position of President of the Fair Trade League for some time. In 1887 he became High Sheriff of Yorkshire, and in 1891 he was made 1st Baron Masham. He was also Deputy Lieutenant in North and West Riding.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsCreated 1st Baron Masham 1891.Bibliography1849, with G.E.Donisthorpe, British patent no. 12,712. 1850, with G.E. Donisthorpe, British patent no. 13,009. 1851, British patent no. 13,532.1852, British patent no. 14,135.1877, British patent no. 3,600 (combing machine). 1868, British patent no. 470.1868, British patent no. 2,386.1868, British patent no. 2,429.1868, British patent no. 3,669.1868, British patent no. 1,549.1871, with J.Reixach, British patent no. 1,117. 1905, Lord Masham's Inventions (autobiography).Further ReadingJ.Hogg (ed.), c. 1888, Fortunes Made in Business, London (biography).W.English, 1969, The Textile Industry, London; and C.Singer (ed.), 1958, A History of Technology, Vol. IV, Oxford: Clarendon Press (both cover the technical details of Lister's invention).RLHBiographical history of technology > Lister, Samuel Cunliffe, 1st Baron Masham
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17 Pounder, Cuthbert Coulson
[br]b. 10 May 1891 Hartlepool, Englandd. 18 December 1982 Belfast (?), Northern Ireland[br]English marine engineer and exponent of the slow-speed diesel engine.[br]Pounder served an apprenticeship with Richardsons Westgarth, marine engineers in north east England. Shortly after, he moved to Harland \& Wolff of Belfast and there fulfilled his life's work. He rose to the rank of Director but is remembered for his outstanding leadership in producing the most advanced steam and diesel machinery installations of their time. Harland \& Wolff were the main licensees for the Burmeister \& Wain marine diesel system, and the Copenhagen company made most of the decisions on design; however, Pounder often found himself in the hot seat and once had the responsibility of concurring with the shipyard's decision to build three Atlantic liners with the largest diesel engines in the world, well beyond the accepted safe levels of extrapolation. With this, Belfast secured worldwide recognition as builders of diesel-driven liners. During the German occupation of Denmark (1940–5), the engineering department at Belfast worked on its own and through systematic research and experimentation built up a database of information that was invaluable in the postwar years.Pounder was instrumental in the development of airless injection diesel fuel pumps. He was a stalwart supporter of all research and development, and while at Belfast was involved in the building of twelve hundred power units. While in his twenties, Pounder began a literary career which continued for sixty years. The bulk of his books and papers were on engineering and arguably the best known is his work on marine diesel engines, which ran to many editions. He was Chairman of Pametrada, the marine engineering research council of Great Britain, and later of the machinery committee of the British Ship Research Association. He regarded good relations within the industry as a matter of paramount importance.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsPresident, Institute of Marine Engineers; Denny Gold Medal 1839, 1959. Institution of Mechanical Engineers Ackroyd Stewart Award; James Clay ton Award.Further ReadingMichael Moss and John R.Hume, 1986, Shipbuilders to the World, Belfast: Blackstaff.FMWBiographical history of technology > Pounder, Cuthbert Coulson
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18 Young, Arthur
SUBJECT AREA: Agricultural and food technology[br]b. 11 September 1741 London, Englandd. 20 April 1820 Bradford, England[br]English writer and commentator on agricultural affairs; founder and Secretary of the Board of Agriculture (later the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food).[br]He was the youngest of the three children of Dr Arthur Young, who was at one time Chaplain to the Speaker of the House of Commons. He learned Latin and Greek at Lavenham School, and at the age of 17 was apprenticed to a mercantile house, an occupation he disliked. He first published The Theatre of the Present War in North America in 1758. He then wrote four novels and began to produce the literary magazine The Universal Museum. After his father's death he returned home to manage his father's farm, and in 1765 he married Martha Allen.Young learned farming by experiment, and three years after his return he took over the rent of a 300 acre farm, Samford Hall in Essex. He was not a practical farmer, and was soon forced to give it up in favour of one of 100 acres (40.5 hectares) in Hertfordshire. He subsidized his farming with his writing, and in 1768 published The Farmer's Letters to the People of England. The first of his books on agricultural tours, Six Weeks Tours through the Counties of England and Wales, was published in 1771. Between 1784 and 1809 he published the Annals of Agriculture, one of whose contributors was George III, who wrote under the pseudonym of Ralph Robinson.By this time he was corresponding with all of influence in agricultural matters, both at home and abroad. George Washington wrote frequently to Young, and George III was reputed to travel always with a copy of his book. The Empress of Russia sent students to him and had his Tours published in Russian. Young made three trips to France in 1787, 1788 and 1789–90 respectively, prior to and during the French Revolution, and his Travels in France (1792) is a remarkable account of that period, made all the more fascinating by his personal contact with people differing as widely as Mirabeau, the French revolutionary leader, and King Louis XVI.Unfortunately, in 1811 an unsuccessful cataract operation left him blind, and he moved from London to his native Bradford, where he remained until his death.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsChairman, Agricultural Committee of the Society of Arts 1773: awarded three Gold Medals during his career for his achievements in practical agriculture. FRS. Honorary Member of the Dublin, York and Manchester learned societies, as well as the Economic Society of Berne, the Palatine Academy of Agriculture at Mannheim, and the Physical Society of Zurich. Honourary member, French Royal Society of Agriculture. Secretary, Board of Agriculture 1793.BibliographyHis first novels were The Fair Americans, Sir Charles Beaufort, Lucy Watson and Julia Benson.His earliest writings on agriculture appeared as collected letters in a periodical with the title Museum Rusticum in 1767.In 1770 he published a two-volume work entitled A Course of Experimental Agriculture, and between 1766 and 1775 he published The Farmer's Letters, Political Arithmetic, Political Essays Concerning the Present State of the British Empire and Southern, Northern and Eastern Tours, and in 1779 he published The Tour of Ireland.In addition he was author of the Board of Agriculture reports on the counties of Suffolk, Lincoln, Norfolk, Hertford, Essex and Oxford.Further ReadingJ.Thirsk (ed.), 1989, The Agrarian History of England and Wales, Vol. VI (deals with the years 1750 to 1850, the period associated with Young).T.G.Gazeley, 1973, "The life of Arthur Young, 1741–1820", Memoirs, American Philosophical Society 97.AP -
19 Philosophy
And what I believe to be more important here is that I find in myself an infinity of ideas of certain things which cannot be assumed to be pure nothingness, even though they may have perhaps no existence outside of my thought. These things are not figments of my imagination, even though it is within my power to think of them or not to think of them; on the contrary, they have their own true and immutable natures. Thus, for example, when I imagine a triangle, even though there may perhaps be no such figure anywhere in the world outside of my thought, nor ever have been, nevertheless the figure cannot help having a certain determinate nature... or essence, which is immutable and eternal, which I have not invented and which does not in any way depend upon my mind. (Descartes, 1951, p. 61)Let us console ourselves for not knowing the possible connections between a spider and the rings of Saturn, and continue to examine what is within our reach. (Voltaire, 1961, p. 144)As modern physics started with the Newtonian revolution, so modern philosophy starts with what one might call the Cartesian Catastrophe. The catastrophe consisted in the splitting up of the world into the realms of matter and mind, and the identification of "mind" with conscious thinking. The result of this identification was the shallow rationalism of l'esprit Cartesien, and an impoverishment of psychology which it took three centuries to remedy even in part. (Koestler, 1964, p. 148)It has been made of late a reproach against natural philosophy that it has struck out on a path of its own, and has separated itself more and more widely from the other sciences which are united by common philological and historical studies. The opposition has, in fact, been long apparent, and seems to me to have grown up mainly under the influence of the Hegelian philosophy, or, at any rate, to have been brought out into more distinct relief by that philosophy.... The sole object of Kant's "Critical Philosophy" was to test the sources and the authority of our knowledge, and to fix a definite scope and standard for the researches of philosophy, as compared with other sciences.... [But Hegel's] "Philosophy of Identity" was bolder. It started with the hypothesis that not only spiritual phenomena, but even the actual world-nature, that is, and man-were the result of an act of thought on the part of a creative mind, similar, it was supposed, in kind to the human mind.... The philosophers accused the scientific men of narrowness; the scientific men retorted that the philosophers were crazy. And so it came about that men of science began to lay some stress on the banishment of all philosophic influences from their work; while some of them, including men of the greatest acuteness, went so far as to condemn philosophy altogether, not merely as useless, but as mischievous dreaming. Thus, it must be confessed, not only were the illegitimate pretensions of the Hegelian system to subordinate to itself all other studies rejected, but no regard was paid to the rightful claims of philosophy, that is, the criticism of the sources of cognition, and the definition of the functions of the intellect. (Helmholz, quoted in Dampier, 1966, pp. 291-292)Philosophy remains true to its classical tradition by renouncing it. (Habermas, 1972, p. 317)I have not attempted... to put forward any grand view of the nature of philosophy; nor do I have any such grand view to put forth if I would. It will be obvious that I do not agree with those who see philosophy as the history of "howlers" and progress in philosophy as the debunking of howlers. It will also be obvious that I do not agree with those who see philosophy as the enterprise of putting forward a priori truths about the world.... I see philosophy as a field which has certain central questions, for example, the relation between thought and reality.... It seems obvious that in dealing with these questions philosophers have formulated rival research programs, that they have put forward general hypotheses, and that philosophers within each major research program have modified their hypotheses by trial and error, even if they sometimes refuse to admit that that is what they are doing. To that extent philosophy is a "science." To argue about whether philosophy is a science in any more serious sense seems to me to be hardly a useful occupation.... It does not seem to me important to decide whether science is philosophy or philosophy is science as long as one has a conception of both that makes both essential to a responsible view of the world and of man's place in it. (Putnam, 1975, p. xvii)What can philosophy contribute to solving the problem of the relation [of] mind to body? Twenty years ago, many English-speaking philosophers would have answered: "Nothing beyond an analysis of the various mental concepts." If we seek knowledge of things, they thought, it is to science that we must turn. Philosophy can only cast light upon our concepts of those things.This retreat from things to concepts was not undertaken lightly. Ever since the seventeenth century, the great intellectual fact of our culture has been the incredible expansion of knowledge both in the natural and in the rational sciences (mathematics, logic).The success of science created a crisis in philosophy. What was there for philosophy to do? Hume had already perceived the problem in some degree, and so surely did Kant, but it was not until the twentieth century, with the Vienna Circle and with Wittgenstein, that the difficulty began to weigh heavily. Wittgenstein took the view that philosophy could do no more than strive to undo the intellectual knots it itself had tied, so achieving intellectual release, and even a certain illumination, but no knowledge. A little later, and more optimistically, Ryle saw a positive, if reduced role, for philosophy in mapping the "logical geography" of our concepts: how they stood to each other and how they were to be analyzed....Since that time, however, philosophers in the "analytic" tradition have swung back from Wittgensteinian and even Rylean pessimism to a more traditional conception of the proper role and tasks of philosophy. Many analytic philosophers now would accept the view that the central task of philosophy is to give an account, or at least play a part in giving an account, of the most general nature of things and of man. (Armstrong, 1990, pp. 37-38)8) Philosophy's Evolving Engagement with Artificial Intelligence and Cognitive ScienceIn the beginning, the nature of philosophy's engagement with artificial intelligence and cognitive science was clear enough. The new sciences of the mind were to provide the long-awaited vindication of the most potent dreams of naturalism and materialism. Mind would at last be located firmly within the natural order. We would see in detail how the most perplexing features of the mental realm could be supported by the operations of solely physical laws upon solely physical stuff. Mental causation (the power of, e.g., a belief to cause an action) would emerge as just another species of physical causation. Reasoning would be understood as a kind of automated theorem proving. And the key to both was to be the depiction of the brain as the implementation of multiple higher level programs whose task was to manipulate and transform symbols or representations: inner items with one foot in the physical (they were realized as brain states) and one in the mental (they were bearers of contents, and their physical gymnastics were cleverly designed to respect semantic relationships such as truth preservation). (A. Clark, 1996, p. 1)Socrates of Athens famously declared that "the unexamined life is not worth living," and his motto aptly explains the impulse to philosophize. Taking nothing for granted, philosophy probes and questions the fundamental presuppositions of every area of human inquiry.... [P]art of the job of the philosopher is to keep at a certain critical distance from current doctrines, whether in the sciences or the arts, and to examine instead how the various elements in our world-view clash, or fit together. Some philosophers have tried to incorporate the results of these inquiries into a grand synoptic view of the nature of reality and our human relationship to it. Others have mistrusted system-building, and seen their primary role as one of clarifications, or the removal of obstacles along the road to truth. But all have shared the Socratic vision of using the human intellect to challenge comfortable preconceptions, insisting that every aspect of human theory and practice be subjected to continuing critical scrutiny....Philosophy is, of course, part of a continuing tradition, and there is much to be gained from seeing how that tradition originated and developed. But the principal object of studying the materials in this book is not to pay homage to past genius, but to enrich one's understanding of central problems that are as pressing today as they have always been-problems about knowledge, truth and reality, the nature of the mind, the basis of right action, and the best way to live. These questions help to mark out the territory of philosophy as an academic discipline, but in a wider sense they define the human predicament itself; they will surely continue to be with us for as long as humanity endures. (Cottingham, 1996, pp. xxi-xxii)10) The Distinction between Dionysian Man and Apollonian Man, between Art and Creativity and Reason and Self- ControlIn his study of ancient Greek culture, The Birth of Tragedy, Nietzsche drew what would become a famous distinction, between the Dionysian spirit, the untamed spirit of art and creativity, and the Apollonian, that of reason and self-control. The story of Greek civilization, and all civilizations, Nietzsche implied, was the gradual victory of Apollonian man, with his desire for control over nature and himself, over Dionysian man, who survives only in myth, poetry, music, and drama. Socrates and Plato had attacked the illusions of art as unreal, and had overturned the delicate cultural balance by valuing only man's critical, rational, and controlling consciousness while denigrating his vital life instincts as irrational and base. The result of this division is "Alexandrian man," the civilized and accomplished Greek citizen of the later ancient world, who is "equipped with the greatest forces of knowledge" but in whom the wellsprings of creativity have dried up. (Herman, 1997, pp. 95-96)Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Philosophy
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